Section 6. Examples from the field
"Training local fishermen to monitor the quality and quantity of marine life in the coral reef has been relatively easy. What we need now are economic alternatives to dynamite fishing. We need options for the fishermen to earn a good living in a non-destructive way."
Marine biologist, Tanga, Tanzania, 1996
The following examples from the field have been collected from published literature and internal IUCN reports, as well as from submissions from field workers, consultants working in conservation, and staff of the institutional partners who supported the development of this publication. We thank all who submitted material or who consented to the use of extracts from their publications.
Where material has been extracted from publications, the source is cited at the end of the example, with full references provided at the end of Volume I. Examples with no source indicated have been submitted by individual contributors and are based on their personal knowledge and/or experience in the field. All those who submitted material for this section are listed under "Contributors" at the back of Volume 2.
The examples refer to conservation initiatives that either applied or missed out on one of the Options for Action included in Sections 1-3 in Volume I. They illustrate specific experiences and lessons learned in particular contexts. The examples are grouped according to the option to which they refer. Each option provides a cross-reference to the relevant examples.
6.1 Inventory of actual/potential stakeholders
See option 1.4.1, Volume 1
1a. Inventory identifies all actors to an agreement
Madagascar
In 1994 ORIMPAKA, an NGO member of COMODE (Malagasy NGOs Council for Development and Environment) and CSIR, a South African NGO, agreed to jointly carry out a study about how best to manage the Special Reserve of Manombo, in the southeast of Madagascar.
Prior to undertaking any activity, the project team identified the actual/potential actors that could be involved in the reserve conservation. These organizations were then contacted and interviewed for their opinions and advice on the project.
The project team classified the actors as follows:
Local community
1b. Survey of migratory users
Guatemala
The chicle tappers of the Péten exemplify the complex links that can exist between local resource users and large commercial networks. In addition to traditional local tappers, groups of tappers from outside the region (Verapaz) converge on the Péten during the tapping season. The outside tappers are contracted through a series of intermediaries, who in turn are linked to the main exporters of chicle gum. Such chains of contractors and subcontractors, most of whom operate from outside the Péten, have a considerable impact on the resource. Most of the chicle stands are located on public or communal lands, and local tappers have few means to prevent exploitation from outsiders. At any given time an inventory of the stakeholders affecting the resource would provide only a partial account of their range, number and links. Seasonal variations have to be taken into account.
1c. From mistakes we learn
Nepal
The first substantial attempt to develop a community forestry management plan took place at Chaap al Danda forest, an area of about 100 ha approximately 40 km from Kathmandu. Although the underlying aim of the exercise was to implement forest management by local people, there was little understanding of what this really meant or how to go about it. The first step was a fairly conventional forest survey, including biomass and productivity estimates for each of the ecologically distinct parts of the forest. The second step was to call a large meeting of the "community". This meeting was attended by a number of local leaders and residents from a number of the villages scattered around the forest. A management committee was elected for the purpose of negotiating the details of the management plan and the administration of its provisions. The plan included a list of user households listed by area of residence.
Since the list of nominated users was quite large, the managing committee organized a harvesting schedule; users from specified wards were asked to cut and collect their share of the firewood on specified days. The first round of harvesting went well but on subsequent harvesting days things began to go wrong. The main problem was that people listed as users did not come to collect their share. In order to find out why this happened, an informal survey was carried out among residents of each village. The results were salutary. It was found that some people listed as users had never used that particular forest and made no claims of user rights. They had apparently been identified as users by ward leaders who felt obliged to make a claim on behalf of their constituents. In other cases, people had apparently never heard of the plan despite claims by the organizing committee that all interested people had been informed of the harvesting schedule. In fact many people with legitimate interests failed to attend the meetings — sometimes because they had not heard about it — and the meeting and the elected committee were dominated by the politically active people from the bazaar town of Chautata. Few people from other settlements were involved.
Underlying these events was a very simplistic and static view of the sociology of forest use. The social element of community forestry was reduced to two basic steps: holding a public meeting and forming a committee. The diverse interests within a "community" of users and the importance of local political issues were ignored. It was assumed that the elected representatives would spread the information as necessary but, in reality, the control of information is often used as a lever of power in society.
Abridged from: Gilmour and Fisher, 1991.
6.2 Stakeholder analysis
See option 1.4.2, Volume 1
2a. An analysis by household
Nepal
The Annapurna Conservation Area Project is a vast initiative covering some 7,600 square km. The project focuses on natural resource conservation, sustainable rural development, sustainable tourism, and conservation education. A variety of surveys and other research studies were undertaken to provide information to the management of the initiative. One of these studies was a stakeholder analysis of the eight Village Development Committee areas. Three researchers were employed and given one week of training. The data collected covered each household and documented the number of occupants, livestock owned, vegetables and fruit trees grown, the main problems faced and each household's priorities for development programmes.
From: Lama and Lipp, 1991.
At about the same time as management planning was taking place at Chaap al Danda (see 1c above), a similar exercise was taking place at Tukucha, just outside the Kathmandu valley. Fortunately, the outcome at Chaap al Danda led to a recognition that something was missing from the original process, and efforts at Tukucha were halted while some profound rethinking took place. Advice was sought from a number of people with experience in community development and a new approach was tried. Staff were encouraged to talk to villagers and to get a feel for their needs and interests. The notion of focus group meetings became central. This technique has two key elements: the first being the understanding that information about a community can best be obtained by looking separately at groups of people with common interests; and the second being the understanding that interaction between people with common interests, meeting in small informal groups, will often lead to a more rapid exchange of information than separate meetings with individuals. At Tukucha, emphasis was placed on informal visits (rather than large-scale public meetings) and on obtaining a clear picture of the diversity of local opinions by identifying various interest groups and holding discussions with them.
The process took many months but avoided mistakes such as those made at Chaap al Danda. It was discovered that the forest, far from being the single entity that was first perceived, was divided into separate sections with separate user groups. In one patch (bordering two areas with separate user groups), each group claimed use-rights and disputed the claims of the other group. There were also disputes involving poorer people who initially did not want to see the "community" in control because they felt that their rights were more likely to be protected by the forest department. This last dispute was resolved by negotiation between the parties within the community.
Abridged from: Gilmour and Fisher, 1991.
2c. Study identifies broad spectrum of actual and potential park users
India
The Indian Institute of Public Administration has been carrying out studies of the interaction between human populations and natural resources/wildlife in and around three of India's national parks: Sariska in Rajasthan, Great Himalayan in Himachal Pradesh, and Rajaji in Uttar Pradesh. One of the major focal points of the study has been the identification of groups and individuals using the parks for various purposes and products: residence, agriculture, collection of timber and non-timber forest products, grazing/fodder, herbs, tourism, pilgrimage, passage, and others. This has helped to identify the actual and potential stakeholders in these areas.
6.3 Information campaign
See option 1.4.3, Volume 1
3a. Turtles vs. tourism
Greek Isles
In the Greek Isles, particularly on the island of Zakynthos, tourism-based activities have become a threat to the survival of the endangered loggerhead sea turtles. The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece (STPS) has developed an extensive public education programme in an attempt to gain local understanding and support for the protection of the sea turtles, for the establishment of a national park in Zakynthos, and to reduce the level of conflict between the interests of turtles and people. In addition, they have sought to raise awareness among tourists about the need to safeguard the turtles and their nesting grounds. The comprehensive education, information dissemination and advocacy campaign involves the following: distribution of information leaflets to tourists via tourist agencies explaining the protected zones designated for turtles and describing ways that tourists can ensure the turtles' survival; presentations of slide shows in local hotels that raise awareness of the issues and explain precautions to take; establishment of information kiosks; and the solicitation of signatures for a petition to pressure the government to establish a national park in Zakynthos. In these various efforts, STPS has gained the cooperation of local hotels, hotel owners, wildlife researchers and tourists, many of whom had previously opposed protection measures. These efforts have helped spread a conservation ethic among local businesses, community leaders and visitors.
Abridged from: Kemp, 1993.
3b. Focusing on communities
Costa Rica
Several NGOs in Costa Rica, particularly the Fundacion Neotropica, which runs the BOSCOSA project in the Osa Peninsula, have carried out local information campaigns concerning their conservation initiatives. The orientation of these campaigns has evolved over time from a strictly conservationist perspective to one which focuses on local communities and participation. This evolution is due to several factors, including donor preferences and new government incentives for local participation and sustainable resource use.
3c. Spreading the message widely
Madagascar
The Mananara-Nord National Park was classified as a biosphere reserve in 1989. Prior to implementing a conservation initiative, the Mananara Biosphere Reserve Project set up an information campaign inside as well as outside the project area. The campaign aimed to inform people about the project's objectives and management approach, about the way in which the community could become involved, and the corresponding benefits. The campaign was conducted at different levels: village, municipality, department and province, as well as national and international. At the village level people were informed through meetings in the 28 villages located around the reserve. Meetings and involvement in planning workshops were used to inform municipalities and departments. Posters, films, articles in the local newspapers and reports about the reserve were used for a wide distribution of information (from local to international level) about the project and its achievements.
3d. Information campaign to promote stakeholder rights
Pakistan
For more than a decade the farmers at the far end of the Rahuki irrigation canal in Hyderabad district were denied their legal irrigation water entitlements. The Bhittai Welfare Association (a local community-based organization) had frequent contact with the farmers during its community work. Their staff informed the farmers through regular community meetings about rights and irrigation entitlements. The irrigation department officials tried to discredit the organization but the effective information campaign conducted by the association successfully countered these negative tactics and exposed the corruption among the irrigation officials. The campaign provided a very effective incentive for the farmers to organize.
3e. Lack of information fosters false rumours
Cameroon
In 1995, ECOFAC's Dja Project in the Campo area was trying to combat false rumours that were undermining its forestry project. Local people had been told through the local newspapers that the World Bank was intending to hire guards to protect the forest and prevent local people from hunting. They were also told that the World Bank wanted to remove the forest company from the area and would not provide alternative jobs for the local people. The project was therefore seen as a very bad initiative, one that worked against the interests of the local communities. A strong information campaign has become necessary to counteract this perception and to encourage local people to become involved in the conservation initiative.
This experience illustrates the importance of starting an information campaign as early as possible; in fact, well before the project gets underway. If information is only provided after false rumours have circulated, it may be too late. Also, special care in providing factual and correct information should be taken if the project has connections with the government. In several countries, people are used to government information campaigns being a mechanism to dispel the truth, not provide it.
3f. A mobile information service
Nepal
A 'mobile camp' is a structured activity within the conservation education and extension programme of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP). Its aim is to bring about a general awareness of different conservation issues. There are two distinct varieties of mobile camps. Special camps are run on an annual basis in the agricultural slack period. They involve a full staff team from many disciplines: forestry, alternative energy, tourism, community development, women's development and conservation. Extension camps are directed specifically at one of the issues covered by the special camps, as and where the need arises.
6.4 Public relations service
See option 1.4.4, Volume 1
4a. Centre promotes two-way information sharing
Nepal
The Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) has seven field offices where most (90 per cent) of the staff are based. These offices are accessible to the local people. They come with proposals for community development and training activities, they have meetings and discussions, and they offer suggestions. Primary planning for conservation initiatives and implementation is carried out through these field offices. The local community is involved at every level, from initial planning through to the evaluation stage.
4b. Coping with distance
Australia
The Kalannie-Goodlands Land Conservation District (established under the Landcare programme) covers an area of 300,000 hectares in west Australia. About ten per cent of the area is affected by obvious land degradation. Farmers in the area decided to approach their problems collectively to realize the benefits of scale, simplify group administration and organize more effective field days and seminars.
Communication between the members has been a major concern of the group. A committee consisting of representatives from each of the seven sub-catchment areas meets twice a month. In addition, a part-time coordinator is employed to keep members up to date with group activities. This is done through phone calls, meetings and a regular newsletter. In addition, committee members spread throughout the area have responsibility for a specific group activity or project such as tree planting, newsletter production, organizing field days, etc.
Abridged from Campbell and Siepen, 1994.
4c. Watch the language!
Tanzania
As part of the planning process for the Mafia Island Marine Park, a workshop was held with village representatives, tourist developers and operators, government staff, scientists and NGOs to share their visions and concerns. The entire proceedings were conducted in both English and the local language (Kiswahili) so that all participants could contribute to the proceedings and hear the views of others. Subsequently, a review of the project found that all the written materials distributed for public information — including the background report for the workshop, the subsequent management plan and the implementation documents — were only available in English. And, although an agreement was reached at the workshop that the workshop proceedings would be published in Kiswahili, this was not done. As a result, many local people had no access to the written information explaining the reasons for the park and its operations.
The effect of this has not been as detrimental as it might have been, however. Because of the low literacy rate in the communities affected by the park, a strong emphasis was placed on community meetings and other forms of social communication as a way of raising community awareness about the park. Since the review, a staff member with responsibility for translating documents into the local language has been appointed to the park management team.
4d . Gathering information from the stakeholders
Australia
Initial planning for the Great Barrier Marine Park included requests for interested parties to send suggestions for area zoning to the Great Barrier Reef Authority. Simple and amusing response forms were widely distributed throughout various communities to assist people in putting together their ideas. The response forms were distributed not just to those living inside the boundaries of the park, but also to those with an interest in the park, such as tourist operators. People could either send the forms back or bring them in, and could also respond verbally, either by telephone or in person. A draft zoning plan was produced on the basis of the responses of the stakeholders and other social actors, and on the information obtained from the authority's own scientists and other sources. This was then discussed and refined with various groups and individuals until agreements covering the various interests were reached.
From: Kelleher, 1995.
6.5 Environmental discussion sessions
See option 1.4.5, Volume 1
5a. Song competition focuses on the environment
Madagascar
The Hiragasy (Malagasy song) is a popular theatre that is well appreciated in the Malagasy Highlands east of Madagascar. The Hiragasy theatre troupe participates in all traditional ceremonies and celebrations. The troupe sings songs related to the Malagasy way of life and the songs incorporate messages about good morals and behaviour. When there is a Hiragasy show people come from remote villages to enjoy the singing, dancing and discourse.
In 1995, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), together with the Art and Culture Ministry, organized a Hiragasy competition. All the famous Malagasy troupes participated in this show, which took place over a period of two months. A requirement of entering the competition was that each troupe had to include a theme on the environment in its performance. Many people attended the competition; others heard it broadcast on radio and television.
5b. Seminars for schools and village groups
Brazil
A conservation project in Brazil covers several hundred hectares of the unique coastal Atlantic forests in the state of Parana. Prior to project design, stakeholder workshops were held involving the active participation of local villagers, state forestry officials and private farms. An NGO conducted bimonthly environmental education and awareness seminars for schools and village groups and established a field unit linked to university research stations to provide extension services on more sustainable agricultural and fishing practices.
5c. Sometimes shock tactics are the best
Australia
A Watertable Watch group adopted a unique way to get the message to fellow farmers about the severity of the area's salinity problem. After an unusually wet period, some group members hired a plane and took aerial photos of the 192 square km covered by their group. They then held a public meeting and showed everyone where their farms were in the photographs. According to one of the organizers: "Some of the farmers had a bit of a shock. Especially in the hall with all these pictures of waterlogged paddocks hanging there with their names on them. It's got a lot of [farmers] interested. You see a lot of them coming on bus trips now having a look at other areas. It's hit a raw nerve".
Abridged from Campbell and Sieper, 1994.
5d. Home visits to inform and build rapport
Nepal
Home visits and discussion meetings are important components of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project's Conservation Education and Extension (CE) programme. These meetings aim to clarify the project's activities and approaches, and to build rapport and mutual trust with the potential stakeholders. The field-based CE staff regularly visit the homes of potential stakeholders to discuss various issues regarding conservation initiatives. Then they hold discussion meetings to which all the potential stakeholders are invited. CE staff are frequently supported by technical staff (forest rangers, health workers, women's development assistance, etc.) who help them provide extra information and technical know-how. There are frequent home visits and discussion meetings during the initial phase of a project.
5e. Raun Isi Theatre Company
Papua New Guinea (PNG)
Community theatre is a powerful and well-received form of communication in rural areas of PNG. Raun Isi Theatre Group is funded by the PNG government with some small contributions from overseas donors such as Greenlight Trust, UK. The group is based in Wewak, on the north coast of PNG, and gives performances throughout its province based on environment and development messages. Using a range of traditional theatre, playback theatre, discussion and awareness methods, Raun Isi aims to inform communities faced with resource-use decisions and help them obtain their rights.
Raun Isi has taken a number of expeditions into more remote areas to inform communities about issues relating to logging arrangements being negotiated. This has resulted in some communities obtaining better representation, negotiating less destructive and more generous deals with companies or deciding to develop alternative income sources that have less impact on their forests.
5f. Children as the key agents for change
Nepal
In 1972 the Shivapuri Watershed — used for hundreds of years by the local people as a source of many of their livelihood resources — was declared a protected area. In the early 1980s, people were evicted from their farmlands to protect the Kathmandu water supply. Today about 3,000 people remain within the boundaries of the area and about 30,000 people live just outside of it. Walls were built and armed soldiers stopped local people gaining access to the reserve. Under this protection, there was a great improvement in both the flora and fauna of the area and in the quality and quantity of water for Kathmandu. Creating the reserve was very disruptive to the local communities, however.
In 1985, the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) initiated a project to assist these people. The project aims to introduce alternative income generating activities, fuel efficient technologies, sanitation programmes and electrification to the local communities. Once the watershed environment has been fully restored, the objective is to allow the local communities to manage it and harvest from it on the basis of local management plans agreed by the villagers.
The project also aims to empower local communities through the transfer of skills, technologies and information related to conservation and sound resource management. Given the large population to be served, the project has recruited the services of local school children as key agents for communication and change. Local youth are provided with information about various technologies by experts employed by the project. These young people transfer the skills and information to local school children. The children are then given the responsibility of teaching their parents, schoolmates and other members of the community. At the end of the process, everyone is brought together into a village workshop to draw up and implement a local plan aimed at primary environmental care.
From: Chitrakar, 1993.
5g. Calypsos for conservation
St. Vincent
On the Caribbean island of St. Vincent a local organized group near a forest reserve mobilized the community to take action to resolve issues affecting their daily lives, including using the reserve's limited resources in a sustainable manner. The group, the JEMS Progressive Community Organization, used local cultural forms such as calypsos, folk songs, drumming, role play and dances to communicate their conservation message to community members. The result has been a number of self-help development projects that address community needs, a continuing adult education programme and several watchdog committees to monitor resource use in the reserve. The active involvement of the community has led to effective village resource management in the forest reserve.
From: Barzetti, 1993.
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